Gymnosperms

Characteristics:
Gymnosperms are vascular, seeded plants, that can be found everywhere.

Life Cycle and Development:

• The gymnosperm life cycle and reproduction cycle start off with a mature sporophyte releasing the ovulate cone and one releasing the pollen cone.
  
• The sporophyll of the pollen cone releases microsporocytes which eventually reach the megasporangium.
  
• A pollen tube forms.
  
• The female gametophyte develops within the megaspore and holds two to three archegonia, each of those containing an egg.
  
• When the eggs are mature, the two sperm cells have developed in the pollen tube and fertilize the eggs.
  
• Fertilizations occurs a year after pollination and the seed develops into a seedling and grows into a mature sporophyte.
  

Examples:

An image of Pinus Longaeva.

The pinus longaeva, or bristlecone pine is found in the White Mountains of California.

It’s adaptation is that it grows where most other plants can’t, reducing competition and risk of fires.

Lycophytes

Characteristics:

Lycophytes are vascular, seedless plants,found in/on temperate forest floors or underground.

Development and Life Cycle:

• The lycophyte life cycle starts off with a spore that turns into a young gametophyte that releases sperm and eggs, if bisexual, and is fertilized, all of this during the haploid stage.
  
• The egg then becomes a zygote and grows into a new sporophyte, and then a mature sporophyte which then releases the spores, all during the diploid stage.
  
• The lycophyte reproduction cycle occurs in two different methods, the homosporous spore production and the heterosporous spore production.
  
• The Homosporous spore production occurs when the sporangium in the sporophyll releases a single type of spore in a bisexual plant to fertilize itself.
  
• The heterosporous spore production occurs when the megaspores and microspores, which female and male gametophytes, respectively, are released and the sperm fertilizes the egg.
  

One adaptation is that spores are released in clouds, improving the chances of the plants reproduction.

Examples:

An image of Isoetes Gunni.

The Isoetes gunnii is a quillwort and lives in marshy areas.

Angiosperms

Characteristics:
Angiosperms are vascular, seed plants, that can be found everywhere.
Development and Life Cycle:


The plant’s life cycle and reproduction cycle are as follows:

• Anthers contain microsporangia, which contain misrosporocytes, which release microspores.


• Microspores form pollen grains, the generative cell inside of it will divide to form two sperm cells.


• Pollination occurs and the sperm are discharged into each ovule.


• Double fertilization occurs when one sperm fertilizes the egg and forms a zygote while the other combines with the two polar nuclei to form the nucleus of the endosperm.


• The zygote develops into an embryo that is packaged along with food in the seed.


• When the seed germinates the embryo develops into a mature sporophyte.

Notable Adaptations:


One adaptation of the Eschscholzia californica, or California Poppy, is the netlike veins that network through the leaves of the plant to provide better nutrient and water circulation.

Monocot versus Dicot


The Parts of the Plant

Roots:

The angiosperm has a root system,which could be either a tap root or a fibrous root which is dependent upon whether the plant is a monocot or a dicot.
Root System: the part of the plant, typically found underground, whose purpose is to anchor the plant to the ground, and absorb water and nutrients. The root system could be that of a tap root, or a fibrous root system.
Stems:
There is a stem present with vascular tissue that is scattered or in a ring pattern.

Flowers

The angiosperms have pollen grains and floral organs.
The flowers have:

• sepals that protect the flower from harm
  
• the petals, which are attractive in color to attract pollinators
  
• a stamen which contains the filament and anthers to give off the pollen
  
• and a carpel, which is the stigma, style and ovary, where the plant gets fertilized.

Plant Cells:
The three types of plant cells are the parenchyma, collenchyma, and sclerenchyma cells.
Parenchyma cells are the least specialized structurally, and perform most of the metabolic functions of the plant. Parenchyma cells synthesize and store various organic products. Photosynthesis occurs in the chloroplasts that are in parenchyma cells in the leaf,while parenchyma cells in the stems and roots have plastids that store starch. Fruit cells are mainly parenchyma (which is logical, as they store nutrients for the seeds).

A cross section of a Lily.

Collenchyma cells are grouped in strands or cylinders. They help support the young parts of the plant shoot. They have unevenly thickened walls. They lack secondary walls and the lignin is absent in the primary walls, which is why they allow flexible support without restraining growth.
Sclerenchyma cells are also used for support and have a thick secondary wall, strengthened by lignin. They are much more rigid than collenchyma cells. Mature sclerenchyma cells are not able to elongate, restraining the growth of the plant. There are two types of sclerenchyma cells, sclereids and fibers. Both are used entirely for support and strengthening.

Xylem and Phloem:
Xylem are the water conducting tubes of most vascular plants.
They contain tracheids, which are the tube-shaped cells that carry the water and minerals up from the roots.
Tracheids are actually dead cells, and only their walls remain to provide a system of microscopic water pipes.


Phloem are living sugar-conducting cells arranged into tubes that distribute sugars, amino acids and other organic products.


Plant Nutrition:
Plants have many minerals and compounds that are essential to their growth and reproduction.
This is where the root system comes into play, as it absorbs the water and nutrients the plant needs to grow.
Plants require several macronutrients such as:

• Carbon,
• Oxygen,
• Hydrogen,
• Nitrogen,
• Potassium,
• Calcium,
• Magnesium,
• Phosphorous
• and Sulfur.

They also require micro nutrients like:

• Chlorine,
• Iron,
• Manganese,
• Boron,
• Zinc,
• Copper,
• Nickel
• and Molybdenum.

A lack in any of these nutrients will cause the plant to be unable to run efficiently, and create several possible side effects, such as droopiness, or wilting.



Tissue Systems in Plants


There are three tissue systems in plants, which are the Dermal tissue system,the vascular tissue system, and the ground tissue system.
The dermal tissue system is the outer protective covering, like the skin of a plant, and it is the first line of defense against pathogenic organisms.

The vascular tissue system is the long distance transport system in the plant.
It is in charge of moving materials through the xylem and phloem.

The ground tissue system is the tissue that is neither dermal nor vascular.
If it is within the vascular tissue it is called the pith, and if it is external to it, it is called the cortex.
The ground tissue system contains cells that are specialized in photosynthesis, storage and support.

Plant Growth:

• Phototropism:
  Because of plant's reliance upon sunlight for the process of photosynthesis, plants have a tendency to grow towards a source of light (as shown by the peas in our classroom).
  This is called phototropism, which is when the plants shoot grows towards the source of light due to hormones and the angle of the light hitting the plant.
  Plants may also grow in response to gravity, which is called gravitropism; roots show positive gravitropism, and stems show negative gravitropism.
  
  
• Plant Hormones:
  There are six major hormones in a plant.
  
  
  
  • Auxin- which stimulates stem elongation, root growth and cell differentiation, and the development of fruit.
    
  • Cytokinins- Affected root growth and differentiation.
    
  • Gibberellins- Promotes seed and bud germination, stem elongation and leaf growth. Stimulates flowering and development of fruit.
    
  • Brassinosteroids- Inhibit root growth, retard leaf abscission.
    
  • Abscisic Acid- Inhibits growth, closes stomata during water stress.
    
  • Ethylene- Promotes fruit ripening, opposes some auxin effects; promotes or inhibits growth and development of roots, leaves and flowers.
    
  
  The Photoperiod
  
  The photperiod is the psychological reaction that organisms have to the length of day or night.
  Many flowering plants use a photorecptor protein to sense seasonal changes in night length, or photoperiod, which they take as signals to the flower.
  Certain plants may require a long or short enough night before they flower, while other are more likely to flower under the appropriate light conditions, but will eventually flower regardless of the photo-conditions.
  Day-length, and through day-length, the season of the year, is vital information to many species of plants, as it triggers several biological changes.
  There are plants that flower only on the long-days of the year, like summer, some that are short-day plants and some that are day-neutral.
  
  
  Flowering Plants and Their Reproductive System:
  
  Flowering plants reproduce through their flowers.
  Flowers are the sexual organs of plants and usually have a pollen system and ovaries, making them bisexual.
  Plants are pollinated by the wind or by bees and bugs and small animals, which then carry the pollen to the other plants, where the pollen goes through the style by a growth emitted from the pollen grain. The sperm travels through this pollen tube, eventually reaching the ovules and fertilization of the egg occurs.
  
  Defense Mechanisms of Plants
  
  Against Predators:
  Plants do a variety of things to defend themselves against disease or herbivores. When attacked by an herbivore, some plants can release a hormone that attracts the predator of that herbivore to defend itself.
  Against Pathogens:
  The dermis is the first layer of defense against pathogens.
  If an infection penetrates that barrier, the plant has a secondary defense: gene-for-gene recognition.
  The plant can recognize the pathogen and remove it.
  If that doesn’t work though, the plant can seal off the infected area or develop a systemic acquired resistance to provide against a diversity of pathogens for several days.

Pterophytes

Characteristics:

Pterophytes are seedless, vascular plants.
They thrive in tropical areas, but are also known to occasionally live in temperate climates.

Pterophytes have a similar life cycle and reproduction pattern as the lycophytes, which would include the following:

• Starting off with a spore that turns into a young gametophyte that then releases sperm and eggs(if bisexual) and is then fertilized during the haploid stage.


• The egg then becomes a zygote and grows into a new sporophyte, and then the mature sporophyte releases the spores, within the diploid stage.]


• The reproduction cycle occurs in two different methods, the homosporous spore production and the heterosporous spore production.


• Homosporous spore production occurs when the sporangium in the sporophyll releases a single type of spore in a bisexual plant to fertilize itself.


• Heterosporous spore production occurs when the megaspores and microspores, which are female and male gametophytes, are released and the sperm fertilizes the egg.

Examples:

-An image of the equisetum arvense(field horsetail),which has large air canals to carry more oxygen to roots, as it grows predominantly in waterlogged soil.

Hornworts

Characteristics:
-Hornworts are a bryophyte, nonvascular, seedless plant.
-They are most likely to be found in the Northern Hemisphere in moist soil, or upon tree bark.
-An adaptation of there is that gametophytes are longer-living than sporophytes in their life-cycle.
Development and Life Cycle:
Once fertilization occurs the bryophyte is in the diploid stage and a zygote forms. The embryo grows to become a female gametophyte.
It releases sporangium, which are in the haploid stage.
They then develop into a male or female gametophyte and the male fertilizes the female, closing the life cycle of the bryophyte.

Examples:

-An image of anthoceros.

-An image of a Hornwort.

These can be found on trees and moist soil.

Mosses

Characteristics:
Mosses are nonvascular, seedless plants.
They are most likely to be found in the Northern Hemisphere in/on moist soil, or upon tree bark.
The gametophytes are longer-living than sporophytes.
Development and Life Cycle:
Once fertilization occurs the bryophyte is in the diploid stage and a zygote forms. The embryo grows to become a female gametophyte. It releases sporangium, which are in the haploid stage. They then develop into a male or female gametophyte and the male fertilizes the female, closing the life cycle of the bryophyte.

Examples:

An image of Polytrichum commune.


An image of hairy-cap moss.

Liverworts

Characteristics:
-Liverworts are a bryophyte, nonvascular, seedless plant.
-They are most likely to be found in the Northern Hemisphere in moist soil, or upon tree bark.
-An adaptation of there is that gametophytes are longer-living than sporophytes in their life-cycle.
Development and Life Cycle:
Once fertilization occurs the bryophyte is in the diploid stage and a zygote forms. The embryo grows to become a female gametophyte.
It releases sporangium, which are in the haploid stage.
They then develop into a male or female gametophyte and the male fertilizes the female, closing the life cycle of the bryophyte.
Examples:



-An image of Marchantia polymorpha,


-An image of Thalloid Liverwort,

All liverworts can be found in moist soil or on tree bark.

Plant Basics and Photosynthesis

General Plant Basics:

Plants are:
-Eukaryotic
-Photosynthetic [Photoautotrophs]
-Producers
-Multicellular
-Sexually reproducing
-And have a life history that involves an alternation of a halpliod phase (Gametophyte) with a dipliod phase

Word for word from the Campbell text the characteristics are:
apical meristems;
alternation of generations;
walled spores produced in sporangia;
multicellular gametangia;
multicellular, dependent embryos.

Plant Evolution and its Effects
-Photosynthesis evolved early in the evolutionary history of life, when all forms of life on Earth were micro-organisms. Although the dates are difficult to estimate with any accuracy, the first photosynthetic organisms probably evolved about 3,500 million years ago, and used hydrogen or hydrogen sulfide as sources of electrons, rather than water.

-Cyanobacteria appeared later, around 3,000 million years ago, and changed the Earth forever when they began to oxygenate the atmosphere, beginning about 2,400 million years ago.

-This new atmosphere allowed the evolution of complex life such as protists. Eventually, about 550 million years ago, one of these protists formed a symbiotic relationship with a cyanobacterium, producing the ancestor of the plants and algae.

-The chloroplasts in modern plants are the descendants of these ancient symbiotic cyanobacteria.

A photo of a cynobacteria.

Photosynthesis

6H2O + 6CO2+ Light Energy ----> C6H12O6+ 6O2


-Photosynthesis is a process in plants that converts light energy, water and inorganic compounds into chemical energy and oxygen.

-Photosynthesis occurs in the mesophyll cells of the plant, mainly in the leaves.

-Light and Water enter photosystem II in the chloroplast and then to photosystem I through an electron transport chain.
At Photosystem I Oxygen is released.

-ATP and NADPH are then sent from photosystem I to the Calvin Cycle where they give off ADP and NADP+ to create RuBP, CO enters the cycle and the reactants undergo phosphorylation to produce a -phosphoglycerate.

-Starch, amino acids, fatty acids and sucrose are created.

A Starch molecule

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